The Native Filmmaker: Smoke Signals

With the rise of sympathetic westerns during the early 90's came a new enthusiasm for Native Americans. Several motion picture companies took their chance to cash in on the revival of Native Americans in film. More importantly, young Native American filmmakers were given the opportunity to showcase their work to a public eager to view films on Native culture. Smoke Signals, written by Sherman Alexie and directed by Chris Eyre is regarded as the best film directed and produced by Natives. The film questions all native stereotypes but from a humorous standpoint. The two main characters are trying to understand their identities and along the way they deal with the common misconceptions about Indians that pervaded their upbringings. It is the first true effort to present modern Native American life from the perspective of a Native writer and director. Even if the film was not well received it is important because it opened the door for future generations of Native filmmakers. With every passing decade, Native Americans are moving away from negative stereotypes and closer to the possibility of controlling their image as well as the depictions of their culture. At least in the film world, Natives are becoming less marginalized and are gaining the necessary agency in order to create more positive images of Native Americans.

Changing of the Tide?: One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest

After the fall of the studio system, directors had more freedom to explore subjects that were once considered off limits or taboo. While many focused on the Vietnam War, like Apocalypse Now, and a generation testing sexual norms, such as Midnight Cowboy, very few directed films about the plight of Native Americans. Although One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest has very little to do with Native portrayals, the relationship between Jack Nicholson and the character Chief is significant. It is significant in the fact that even though the director's focus is completely non-Native, he still makes a pass at questioning the portrayal of Native Americans. Chief is a massive lumbering mental patient who speaks to no one and is presumed to be mute. Jack Nicholson's character confides in Chief that he hates the mental ward and wishes to break free. In a private moment, Nicholson talks to Chief and then offers him a piece of chewing gum. To Nicholson's astonishment the Chief says "thank you" and the two share a laugh over the Chief's ability to fool all of the staff at the mental ward. But more importantly, it is the directors commentary on the nature of Native stereotypes. In a sense, Native actors or natives in general have the ability to revel in the fact that they are able to play on stereotypes to their advantage. However, there is an important caveat to this agency. Natives are still playing within the established system. They are not controlling their own images or portrayals of their culture.

The Hollywood Studio System: The Seachers, 1956

The 1956 classic, The Searchers, is regarded as one of the greatest westerns in cinematic history. John Ford does a wonderful job encapsulating all of the beloved qualities of the frontier. John Wayne plays Ethan Edwards, a civil war veteran returning home to the frontier. After a series of diversions, a local Comanche warrior leads a band of riders to raid the home of Ethan's brother. Ethan returns to find the home burned and two of the daughters kidnapped. Ethan and his adopted nephew Martin decide to go and search for the two girls.
Two motifs stand out in the film. First, the relationship between Ethan and the half Indian Martin. Second, the portrayal of the Indians.Ethan never truly accepts Martin as a member of his family. He constantly antagonizes him by calling him names like "half blood". In addition to being in a submissive role to Ethan, Martin is the only "Native" portrayed in a positive light. The rest of the Indians are savages while Martin, with his mixed blood, is able to rise above his savagery and become a hero along with Ethan. All but one Indian are played by white actors in the film. The primary antagonist, Scar, is played by a white actor. He is cruel and cunning, able to outwit Ethan and his family and is able to commit heinous acts of violence such as the rape and murder of Ethan's niece. The only Native actor is the woman playing the old Comanche woman who was bought accidentally by Martin. The Indians are clearly the enemy in this film. Although the film is considered a masterpiece we must still accept the fact that unfair stereotypes are the basis of the Indian character.

Introduction:

Throughout film history, Native Americans have struggled to gain creative control of their images and stories. From the beginning, Hollywood has perpetuated stereotypes and misconceptions regarding Native Americans. The Native always stands in stark contrast to the white character. They always have a sort of inherent flaw that holds them back. The "Anglo" culture in film is dominant. Native American culture and traditions is constantly portrayed as backwards or savage. The Hollywood "studio system", which began in the 1920's and ended in the 1960's,  cemented any Native stereotypes in American culture. For the sake of efficiency, studios used standardized images of Native Americans in all of their films. More often then not, the Native roles were played by white actors. The typical Native male was an imposing figure with red skin and dark eyes. He usually wore a buckskin loin cloth with beads draped over his arms and chest. He was a savage character who used guerrilla tactics to surprise and kill frontier whites. The typical Native female was soft spoken and usually attracted the eye of the white protagonist. Both were in tune with nature and offered to teach the white characters about the land if they were willing to learn. The intelligence of the Natives were racist as well. Keeping in line with the "Noble Savage" theme, the Natives were considered intelligent when it came to war tactics or herbal healing. The Natives were never able to comprehend the modern ways of the white man.

These stereotypes continued throughout the studio system era until the early 1990's when more sympathetic western films began to be produced. However, the years leading up to the sympathetic westerns showed some progress in changing Native stereotypes. My focus is on three films in three different cinematic eras. The first film, The Searchers, is a typical western film depicting Natives in a stereotypical negative light. The second film, One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest, offers a small critique of past Native stereotypes and is an example of changing attitudes towards Native Americans in film. The third and final film, Smoke Signals, is the most famous Native directed and produced film. It represents the final stage in the development of the Native image in film. Natives deserve the opportunity to create their own images and tell their own stories and Smoke Signals is the beginning of this new stage.